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Federal brokers have ceaselessly used so-called “less-lethal” weapons in opposition to protesters, together with influence projectiles, tear fuel and pepper spray, because the Trump administration’s nationwide immigration raids started final 12 months.
Using less-lethal weapons (LLWs) has been controversial. Whereas designed to incapacitate or management an individual with out inflicting dying or everlasting damage, they’ll trigger severe or deadly accidents, particularly when used improperly.
Earlier this month, two protesters in California had been reportedly blinded after US federal brokers fired less-lethal rounds at their faces from shut vary. These incidents had been a part of a wave of violent clashes between brokers from the Division of Homeland Safety (DHS) and protesters throughout the nation after the lethal taking pictures of US citizen Renee Good by an Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) agent in Minneapolis.
In protests in Minneapolis instantly following Good’s dying, one Customs and Border Patrol (CBP) officer was captured on digital camera firing a 40mm less-lethal launcher 5 occasions in lower than 5 minutes, with a number of of those photographs showing to focus on protesters’ faces, which is in opposition to CBP’s personal use-of-force coverage.
A Bellingcat investigation of DHS incidents in October 2025 additionally discovered about 30 incidents that appeared to violate a short lived restraining order (TRO) issued by an Illinois decide limiting how DHS brokers might use LLWs.
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It isn’t all the time apparent whether or not using a LLW is authorised or not, as DHS element businesses equivalent to ICE and CBP have various steering on components equivalent to the extent of resistance a person wants to indicate earlier than a sure sort of power can be utilized, in addition to how particular forms of less-lethal weapons and munitions can be utilized.
Whereas CBP’s use-of-force coverage as of January 2021 is accessible on its web site, ICE doesn’t embrace particular steering on less-lethal weapons in its 2023 “Firearms and Use of Power” Directive, and doesn’t seem to have any publicly accessible coverage that outlines this steering.
DHS didn’t reply by publication time to Bellingcat’s request for the latest DHS, CBP and ICE use-of-force insurance policies, or to questions on what less-lethal weapons had been authorised to be used by the division and its element businesses.
The DHS use-of-force coverage, up to date in February 2023, states that the division’s regulation enforcement officers and brokers might use power, together with LLWs, “solely when no fairly efficient, protected and possible different seems to exist”. It additionally says brokers might solely use a degree of power that’s “objectively cheap in gentle of the details and circumstances” that they face on the time.
DHS has repeatedly defended its use of riot-control weapons in protests throughout the nation, stating that it was “taking cheap and constitutional measures to uphold the rule of regulation and shield [its] officers”.
Right here’s determine a few of the less-lethal weapons that DHS brokers, together with these from ICE and CBP, have been seen utilizing throughout latest immigration operations.
Compressed Air Launchers or ‘PepperBall Weapons’
Compressed air, or pneumatic launchers, are basically paintball weapons that fireplace 0.68mm balls which break on influence. Typically, this releases a powdered chemical irritant equivalent to oleoresin capsicum (OC) or PavaPowder – the identical compounds usually present in pepper spray.
Compressed air launchers can be used with different projectiles, equivalent to “marking” projectiles that use paint to mark a person for later arrest, and projectiles supposed to interrupt glass.
These weapons are also known as “PepperBall” weapons, named after the main model PepperBall. Nonetheless, DHS brokers have additionally been seen carrying compressed air launchers from completely different manufacturers, such because the FN303, produced by FN America.
Many compressed air launchers resemble customary paintball weapons, with a definite hopper or loader, which holds the ball projectiles, mounted to the highest. In addition they have a compressed air tank that could be mounted to the aspect, backside, or contained in the buttstock (or again) of the weapon.
Many compressed air launchers, and less-lethal weapons typically, have very vibrant colors equivalent to orange to tell apart them from deadly weapons.
Nonetheless, some compressed air launchers require nearer scrutiny to tell apart them from firearms.
For instance, federal brokers have been seen carrying FN303 compressed air launchers in movies of immigration enforcement actions. This weapon might resemble a rifle or different firearm, as it’s often all-black and, in contrast to the TAC-SF sequence PepperBall weapons, lacks a visual hopper.
If nearer examination is feasible, this weapon might be recognized by its distinct options, together with a round journal, side-mounted compressed air tank and a hose connecting the firearm to the air tank.
The January 2021 CBP Use of Power Coverage locations a number of restrictions on using compressed air launchers, together with that they shouldn’t be used in opposition to young children, the aged, visibly pregnant ladies, or individuals working a automobile. It additionally states that PepperBall weapons shouldn’t be used inside 3 toes “except using lethal power is cheap and obligatory”. When utilizing the FN303, the minimal distance is elevated to 10 toes.
The CBP Use of Power Coverage says that the intentional concentrating on of areas the place there’s a “substantial danger of great bodily damage or dying is taken into account a use of lethal power.” Brokers are instructed to not goal “the pinnacle, neck, backbone, or groin of the supposed topic, except using lethal power is cheap”. PepperBall and FN America present comparable warnings about avoiding important areas to stop severe damage or dying.
In accordance with a 2021 report by the US Workplace of Inspector Common, CBP requires its brokers to recertify their coaching to make use of PepperBall weapons and FN303s yearly, however ICE doesn’t.
40mm Launchers
DHS brokers additionally use 40mm launchers to fireplace “Much less-Deadly Specialist Impression and Chemical Munitions (LLSI-CM)”. These launchers resemble army grenade launchers, however are used to fireplace less-lethal ammunition, together with “sponge” rounds that may disperse chemical irritants on influence.
Federal brokers have been seen utilizing or carrying the B&T GL06 launcher in footage of a number of incidents reviewed by Bellingcat. They’ve additionally been noticed with different 40mm launchers, together with Penn Arms 40mm multi-shot launchers, which have a six-round cylinder journal.
There are numerous less-lethal munitions accessible for 40mm launchers, together with these whose main operate is “ache compliance” by the power of influence, chemical irritants or a mix of each.
Movies of clashes between Border Patrol brokers and protesters present these launchers getting used with mixture rounds designed to hit the goal for ache compliance whereas additionally delivering a chemical irritant equivalent to OC or CS.
Different munitions dispense chemical irritants or smoke after being launched. For instance, within the protests instantly following Good’s dying, a Border Patrol agent was seen firing a 40mm munition that launched a number of projectiles emitting chemical irritants in a single shot, according to the “SKAT Shell” by Protection Know-how.
Protection Know-how’s technical specs for its 40mm Direct Impression Rounds, which brokers have been seen armed with, state that the munitions are thought of less-lethal when fired at a minimal protected vary of 5 toes and on the massive muscle teams of the buttocks, thigh and knees, which “present adequate ache stimulus, whereas drastically decreasing severe or life-threatening accidents”.
A DHS Workplace of Inspector Common Report in 2021 famous various steering on using 40mm launchers among the many division’s element businesses: “ICE’s use of power coverage signifies that the 40MM launcher is lethal power when fired at somebody, whereas the CBP use of power coverage solely directs officers to not goal an individual’s head or neck.”
CBP’s 2021 use-of-force coverage states that brokers ought to “not deliberately goal the pinnacle, neck, groin, backbone, or feminine breast”, and that anybody in custody who has been topic to such munitions ought to be seen by a medical skilled “as quickly as practicable”.
As of publication, DHS had not replied to Bellingcat’s questions on whether or not the division had an inside coverage or offered coaching to workers on the minimal protected distance for 40mm less-lethal launchers as advisable by the producers.
Hand-Thrown Munitions
DHS brokers have additionally been seen throwing some less-lethal munitions, equivalent to flash-bangs, smoke and “tear fuel” grenades or canisters by hand.
These munitions activate a brief delay after the grenade is employed. Once they activate, flash-bangs or “stun” grenades emit a vibrant flash of sunshine and a loud sound that’s designed to disorient targets. Each smoke grenades and tear fuel (also called “CS fuel” or “OC fuel”) emit thick smoke, however the former simply impedes visibility, whereas the latter additionally comprises chemical irritants that sting the eyes.
Protection Know-how provides smoke grenades with hexachloroethane smoke composition, however most of their smoke grenades use “SAF-Smoke”, a much less poisonous terephthalic acid smoke composition.
Hexachloroethane, whereas poisonous, isn’t a nerve agent, regardless of misinformation surrounding the deployment of inexperienced coloured smoke grenades in Minnesota by DHS personnel.
The form and common development, color, and any textual content may also help determine these munitions.
Much less-lethal munitions usually characteristic the producer’s brand, the mannequin identify of the munition, and the mannequin or half quantity. The textual content and producer brand are usually colour-coded to point the kind of payload the munition has, with blue indicating CS, orange indicating OC, yellow indicating smoke, inexperienced indicating a marking composition and black indicating munitions with no chemical payload.
A 2021 evaluation by Bellingcat and Newsy discovered that Protection Know-how and Mixed Tactical Techniques, the 2 producers which produce a lot of the less-lethal munitions utilized by federal brokers, each listing the mannequin numbers of their merchandise on-line. Publicly accessible tariffs for Protection Know-how and Mixed Tactical Techniques can be used to determine particular munitions by their mannequin numbers.
CBP’s 2021 use-of-force coverage states that hand-thrown munitions are topic to the identical restrictions to be used as munition launcher-fired influence and chemical munitions.
Chemical Irritant Sprays
DHS brokers have additionally been utilizing handheld chemical irritant sprays, usually colloquially known as “pepper spray” or “mace”.
These sprays are available in quite a lot of sizes and concentrations containing CS, OC, or each. Sprays utilized by regulation enforcement often have a canister measurement designated “MK-” adopted by a quantity, with larger numbers indicating bigger canister sizes. The focus of chemical irritants contained within the spray can be indicated on the canister.
The effectiveness of OC sprays is set by the focus of main capsaicinoids, that are the energetic compounds in OC that trigger irritation. These sprays are additionally affected by the kind of aerosol dispersion, or stream, used. Several types of streams enhance or lower the vary of the spray in addition to the protection space.
Civilian and regulation enforcement sprays vary from 0.18 % to 1.33 % main capsaicinoids, in keeping with SABRE, a producer of regulation enforcement and civilian sprays. Civilian sprays within the US can have the identical main capsaicinoid content material as regulation enforcement sprays, however are restricted to smaller-sized canisters.
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Protection Know-how sprays have completely different color bands to point the share of main capsaicinoids within the spray for OC. If the spray is CS, the CS focus is standardised at 2 %. The corporate makes use of a white band for .2 %, yellow band for .4 %, orange band for .7 %, crimson band for 1.3 % and a gray band for sprays containing both CS or a mix of OC and CS.
SABRE sells quite a lot of concentrations and sprays as regulation enforcement merchandise, together with 0.33 %, 0.67 %, and 1.33 % main capsaicinoid concentrations of OC, in addition to CS, and mixture CS and OC sprays. The particular concentrations of SABRE sprays and the kind of stream can be recognized by the textual content on the canister.
One Air Power Analysis Laboratory examine discovered that some sprays might pose a big danger of extreme eye injury because of stress accidents ensuing from massive aerosol droplets hitting the attention.
Protection Know-how’s technical specs suggest a minimal distance of between 3 and 6 toes, relying on the particular spray. SABRE doesn’t publicly present their minimal protected deployment distances, however a Mesa Police Division doc lists a minimal distance of six toes for the SABRE Crimson MK-9. CBP’s 2021 use-of-force coverage doesn’t present any minimal use distances.
CBP’s 2021 use-of-force coverage states that OC Spray might solely be used on people providing “energetic resistance”, and that it shouldn’t be used on “young children; visibly pregnant; and operators of motor autos”.
Digital Management Weapons
DHS brokers have additionally been seen utilizing digital management weapons (ECWs), that are colloquially known as TASERs after the unique weapon invented for regulation enforcement use, in immigration-related raids.
ECWs can ship a shock upon direct contact or launch probes that embed within the focused particular person, incapacitating them.
A shock on contact, or a “drive-stun” characteristic, delivers localised ache whereas in direct contact. When correctly deployed, the probes ship alerts to the physique that trigger muscle groups to contract. An individual’s physique “locking up” from muscle contractions is an indicator that an ECW has been deployed. ECWs could also be able to utilizing both or each strategies.
ECWs are usually painted a mix of black and vibrant yellow, however this varies between fashions. The brilliant color of components of tasers is a typical characteristic to assist distinguish an ECW from handguns utilized by federal brokers. When considered from the entrance, a round gun barrel is seen on handguns, whereas ECWs characteristic a number of round probes or rectangular covers on the cartridge. ECWs additionally often have flashlights and lasers, though handguns can also be outfitted with these options. Some ECWs might make audible sounds when armed or deployed.
Axon, the predominant producer of ECWs, produces a number of fashions together with the TASER 10 and TASER 7. Axon offers a coverage information on advisable use of its TASER fashions to regulation enforcement businesses, which recommends concentrating on beneath the neck from behind, or the decrease torso from the entrance. It recommends avoiding delicate areas together with the pinnacle, face, throat, chest and groin.
Axon additionally recommends in opposition to utilizing ECWs in opposition to young children, the aged, pregnant individuals, very skinny individuals and people in positions of elevated dangers equivalent to operating, working a motorcar, or in an elevated place “except the state of affairs justifies an elevated danger”.
CBP’s 2021 use-of-force coverage, along with limiting using ECWs in opposition to young children, the aged, visibly pregnant ladies, and folks working a automobile, states that they shouldn’t be used in opposition to somebody who’s operating or handcuffed. Nonetheless, the coverage does state that there could also be an exception to the rule in opposition to utilizing ECWs on a operating particular person if an agent has a “cheap perception that the topic presents an imminent menace of damage” to an agent or one other particular person. This menace, in keeping with the coverage, should “outweigh the chance of damage to the topic that may happen because of an uncontrolled fall whereas the topic is operating”.
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